“Paranoid” Paranoid Personality Disorder – “Black Sabbath” 823.543

Mistrustful and Misunderstood:
A Review of Paranoid Personality Disorder

Royce Lee, M.D.

Abstract

Purpose of review

Paranoid Personality Disorder (PPD) has historically been neglected by science out of proportion to its prevalence or its association with negative clinical outcomes. This review provides an update on what is known about PPD regarding its prevalence, demographics, comorbidity, biological mechanism, risk factors, and relationship to psychotic disorders.

Recent Findings

PPD has long been the subject of a rich and prescient theoretical literature which has provided a surprisingly coherent account of the psychological mechanism of non-delusional paranoia. Available data indicate that PPD has a close relationship with childhood trauma and social stress. Descriptive data on a sample of 115 individuals with Paranoid Personality Disorder is examined in comparison with a group of individuals with Borderline Personality Disorder. The descriptive data largely confirm previously identified relationships between Paranoid Personality Disorder and childhood trauma, violence, and race. We identify important similarities to and differences from Borderline Personality Disorder.

Summary

PPD continues to be an important construct in the clinic and the laboratory. Available data lead to a reconsideration of the disorder as more closely related to trauma than to schizophrenia.

INTRODUCTION

Paranoid Personality Disorder (PPD) seems destined to be misunderstood. It was once theorized to be associated with schizophrenia due to the phenomenological similarity of suspiciousness to paranoid delusion, but the evidence for this association is not strong. Clinically, it is overlooked, or its symptoms are accounted for by comorbid personality disorders. Science has neglected PPD; individuals with PPD are slow to volunteer for research studies and it has not been a priority for research funding. And yet, the clinical reality is that PPD is a severe, relatively common clinical problem that is difficult to treat. Fortunately, our understanding of PPD has improved as research has accrued.

The reader can be directed to several excellent reviews of PPD. In a discussion of PPD in light of the transition from DSM-IV to 5, an argument was made to rethink PPD as the dimensional representation of trait-like suspicious hostility, rather than a categorical syndrome  A recent review by Carroll  stressed its place in a pathway leading to violence in clinical and forensic settings. Bernstein and Useda  provide a scholarly review of the rich psychological literature on PPD, and recalibrate the relationship between DSM-IV/5 descriptions and what is found in the population.

This review of PPD proposes that examining PPD in the context of childhood trauma provides a useful framework with which to integrate psychological theories regarding PPD, empirical data, and clinical practice. We will summarize the current and past literature on PPD. Then we will provide descriptive data on one of the largest samples of PPD samples to date. We will conclude by identifying important unanswered questions regarding these mistrustful and misunderstood humans.

Nosology

In the psychiatric nosology, DSM-IV and 5 describe PPD as a disorder of suspicious, unforgiving, ruminative, and jealous traits  In addition to suspiciousness, ICD-10 PPD includes traits of excessive self-importance and hostility, and further proposes subtypes of the expansive, fanatic, querulant and sensitive paranoid personality . In all nosologies, PPD excludes psychotic symptoms, including paranoid delusions and hallucinations, commonly encountered in classic psychiatric syndromes like schizophrenia, schizoaffective, and psychotic states of bipolar disorder. Paranoid thoughts may also develop in Alzheimer’s Dementia  and after acquired brain injury . However, these conditions occur with distinct presentations and longitudinal course. An intriguing correlate of PPD is recognized in the forensic literature regarding persistent litigants, who can clog court systems with unending and unwinnable litigation (Lester et al., 2004).

Dimensional systems of diagnosis are under development that provide a glimpse of the future of the PPD diagnosis in the clinic. The DSM5 research criteria  and NIMH Research Domain Criteria (rDOC) system  largely succeed in capturing the essential features of PPD. The dimensional traits proposed in the DSM 5 have been confirmed to map onto the Five Factor Model (FFM) constructs in pairwise fashion, with negative affectivity/ neuroticism, antagonism/ agreeableness, detachment/ extraversion, disinhibition/ conscientiousness, psychoticism/ openness to experience  FFM constructs are implicitly biological, with assumed genetic contributions. The rDOC system is explicitly biological, with the ambition of creating a brain-based nosology from the “bottom up”. Facets of PPD can be recognized in Negative Valence Systems and Systems for Social Processes. How these can be integrated into an approach in the clinic will depend on the results of ongoing research.

Why is Paranoid PD Important?

Out of proportion with the scant attention dedicated to it, PPD powerfully predicts important adverse outcomes in the treatment of personality disordered patients. Epidemiological data from the United States indicates the PPD is a significant cause of disability . Australian epidemiological research confirms the American findings, with PPD contributing to disability independent of the effects of other personality disorders  Persons with PPD, when not disabled, stop working earlier than non-personality disordered individuals . In clinical populations, it is one of the strongest predictors of aggressive behavior , reviewed in. In the forensic realm, PPD is associated with violence and stalking  as well as excessive litigation. In the clinic individuals with PPD are prone to depression and have a negative prognosis, despite intensive psychiatric treatment  The risk of suicide and suicide attempts in PPD remains obscure, with little or no data available regarding this important clinical problem. However, because it is often comorbid with other personality disorders that are associated with elevated suicide risk, one can infer the risk of suicide in PPD individuals to be high, if only due to comorbidity with conditions such as Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD)

Prevalence and Demographics

Estimates of the prevalence of PPD range from 1.21% to 4.4%. In an epidemiological survey of the Australian population, 10,641 respondents were assessed by telephone interview. 6.5% of the adult population was diagnosed with a personality disorder, with PPD making up 1.2% of the population. A study from Norway found a 2.4% prevalence []. In a sample of 43,093 adults in the United States, the Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions found that 14.8% Americans, or 30.8 million individuals, had personality disorder. PPD was the second most prevalent personality disorder (4.4%), after Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder (OCPD). Even accounting for the possibility of methodological issues that might reduce the accuracy of these estimates, PPD is more common than expected given the scant attention it receives in the clinic or laboratory.

Prevalence in psychiatric clinics ranges from 2 – 10% and 10 – 30% in psychiatric inpatient hospitals Although some work has suggested a lower prevalence in hospital settings, the high prevalence in prison populations, 23%, supports the validity of higher prevalence rates (Ullrich et al., 2008).

Regarding gender differences, epidemiological research finds higher rates in women  while clinical samples find higher rates in men Demographic risk factors include low income (OR = 3.55) and being Black, (OR = 2.15), Native American (OR = 3.12) or Hispanic (OR = 1.43). Additional risk factors include relationship history, with PPD being associated with having been widowed, divorced, or separated (OR = 1.94) or never married (OR = 2.03). In clinical settings, Africa-Americans are more likely to be diagnosed with PPD]. These differences are probably best explained by the effects of trauma and stress Overall, the demographic patterns found in PPD paint a picture of a disorder that is found in the disadvantaged and subdominant. These raise the hypothesis of social stress as an etiological factor, which the data, as reviewed in sections following, generally confirm. Indeed, perceived racism is correlated with levels of non-psychotic paranoia in African Americans

Very little data is available regarding the role of culture in PPD. Paranoid, mistrustful thinking can be found across cultures and lifespans. Available data suggest that levels of mistrust are similar between children living in England and Hong Kong On the other hand, there is some evidence suggests that cultural behaviors can modify the pattern of symptom presentation in culture specific ways (Nakamura et al., 2002). Further work is needed in this area.

History

Perhaps the first systematic description of PPD comes from Kraepelin, who posits that PPD is a diminished form of dementia precox. To him, Paranoid personality is characterized by mistrust, interest in secret motives, irritability and discontent, fault-finding, feelings of being treated unjustly and of being oppressed, and excessive evaluation of the self. Although current evidence does not support the concept of PPD as a premorbid syndrome of schizophrenia, Kraepelin’s description of the disorder is essentially identical to current descriptions of PPD. Important contributions also came from Bleuler, who pointed out that paranoid personality is not associated with fully fledged delusions, an idea that is predictive of the currently supported link between PPD and delusional disorder. Meyer detected a specific cognitive rigidity in PPD that presages contemporary thought about it. In 1923, Schneider linked PPD to psychopathic behaviors, further dividing psychopathy into a combative versus eccentric subtype

PPD has been present in the DSM since 1952. In the twentieth century, scholarship regarding PPD came in two bodies of work, a theoretical but clinically grounded psychodynamic formulation of PPD, and an empirical psychology of paranoid anxiety.

Reliability and Measurement

The reliability of the PPD diagnosis has been addressed in series of studies, each of which has been fairly small. Reliability is measured with Cohen’s Kappa, which is a ratio, from 0 to 1, of the relationship between the observed rate of agreement of diagnosis to the rate expected by chance. A Kappa of 1 is a rating with perfect agreement. Kappa and IC values < 0.40 are considered poor, between 0.41 and 0.75 are fair, and above 0.75 are excellent As displayed in Table 1 below, based on the evidence availability, DSM defined PPD has low to fair inter-rater reliability and low test-retest reliability. We found six studies that reported Kappa values; 1: the Collaborative Longitudinal Personality Disorders Study, finding lower PPD reliability than borderline personality disorder (BPD); 2: a study in military recruits; 3: a study using the International Personality Disorder Exam, also finding PPD to have lower reliability than BPD; 4. An early study using the DSM-III criteria setting the floor on reliability (kappa = 0.35) 5: a study using the SIDP III and a study using the Dutch version of the SCID-II

Table 1

Reliability of PPD
Study Instrument N Interrater Test-Retes Trait Sum
Mellsop et al., 1982 DSM-III 8 0.35
Zanarini et al., 2000 DIPD-IV 2 0.58 0.39 0.86
Pilkonis et al., SIDP-R III ? 0.47
Loranger et al., 2007 0.47
Jane et al., 2006 SIDP-IV 12 .57 0.75 0.84
Lobbestael et al., 2011 SCID-II 3 0.85 0.85

Given the very small sample sizes used to calculate Kappa scores for PPD, it is difficult to come to firm conclusions about the reliability of diagnosis. However, the data do not make a strong case for it. Potentially making matters worse, clinicians are less likely to detect PPD than semi-structured research interviews. This finding would suggest that the inter-rater reliability in the clinic is most likely even lower than that found in the research setting. Thus, the categorical description of PPD would need substantial revision to maximize its usefulness in the clinic. Interestingly, evidence from the same studies found higher reliability for PPD related dimensional trait behaviors. As reviewed in the following sections, this comes at a time when the empirical psychological and biological sciences also support a dimensional behavioral trait model.

Dimensions

Given the relatively low inter-rater reliability of categorically defined PPD compared to its dimensional equivalent, the ability of dimensional systems to capture the essence of PPD is an important issue. A study examining the taxonometric structure of PPD in 731 patients from the Collaborative Longitudinal Study of Personality Disorders found evidence that PPD is dimensional rather than categorical. The lack of clear demarcation between cases and non-cases detected in taxonometric analysis could help explain the low inter-rater reliability found using clinical diagnostic criteria. On the other hand, a Korean study examining the frequency distribution of personality disorder criteria found that PPD exhibits a cubic distribution. These results suggest that PPD is intermediate between disorders that are categorical, such as Antisocial and Schizoid, and those that are more clearly dimensional, such as Obsessive-Compulsive.

Consensus on the best dimensional representation of PPD is lacking. Evidence to date can be broadly categorized as research dividing PPD into lower order behavioral traits, versus research examining paranoia itself as a dimension. We will first review studies examining lower order behavioral traits.

In a Norwegian study of 930 personality disordered patients, 114 patients with DSM-IV PPD were identified  Supporting the dimensional approach, there was no distinct boundary between cases and non-cases, as evidenced by a large of number of individuals satisfying some diagnostic criteria but remaining sub-threshold. Confirmatory factor analysis found evidence for two underlying traits, suspiciousness and hostility, moderately correlated with each other (r = .69). The authors propose that suspiciousness and hostility represent independent, latent factors underlying PPD. Doubts about the loyalty of friends was the most highly endorsed symptom, while doubts about the fidelity of a loved one was the least endorsed. These results are supported by previous work examining PPD in the context of the Five Factor Model of personality traits, finding that PPD is negatively correlated with agreeableness and positively correlated with neuroticism, possibly along with low extraversion. While understanding PPD as a disorder of low agreeableness and high neuroticism is helpful, this set of traits is not unique to PPD. In fact, meta-analysis reveals that high neuroticism and low agreeableness emerge as traits underlying personality disorder in general. Thus, PPD could be seen as being closely related to Avoidant, Borderline, Obsessive-Compulsive, Antisocial, and Narcissistic Personality Disorder. This would suggest that the Five Factor Model may not be sufficient to characterize clinically important aspects of personality disorder psychopathology relevant to PPD.

A body of work has examined paranoia as a dimension in non-psychiatric populations. Work in community samples finds that paranoid thoughts are common, with 12.6% of young New Zealanders endorsing paranoid features and 1/3 of the UK population endorsing suspicious thoughts. In a study from 7,281 UK individuals from the Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey (APMS, 2007), 18.6 reported mild, non-bizarre paranoia. A smaller percentage (1.8%) endorsed feeling that there is a plot to cause them serious harm, representing more severe paranoia of delusional intensity. Another study using a UK sample, this time the British National Psychiatric Morbidity Survey, found evidence for an exponential distribution of paranoid symptoms along a continuum, with a few endorsing more severe symptoms (roughly 2%) and many endorsing mild symptoms (20–30%). This study was notable for using individual items from the Psychosis Screening Questionnaire (PSQ) and paranoia-related personality disorder criteria from the SCID. The rationale for this approach is that paranoia may exist on a continuum, from interpersonal sensitivity, to mistrust, to ideas of reference, to fixed delusions. The results supported individual clusters, or subtypes of paranoia. The results also supported a continuum model of increasing severity, in which the most severely paranoid individuals, who endorsed paranoid delusions, endorsed all of the affective and interpersonal symptoms of the less severe groups. Such an interpretation would remarkably be consistent with Kraepelin’s view of paranoia as emerging from abnormal personality, rather than expression of schizophrenia (Kendler, 1988).

The field would benefit from an instrument that more specifically characterizes paranoid ideation as found in PPD. Two such measures have been developed, although neither has been widely used. The Paranoid Personality Disorder Features Questionnaire (PPDFQ) measures six traits associated with PPD: suspiciousness, antagonism, introversion, hypersensitivity, hypervigilance, and rigidity []. Compared to the DSM-5 criteria, the PPDFQ provides equal emphasis to cognitive, social, and emotional features of the disorder. It additionally measures impairment associated with each trait. Unfortunately, the measure has not been utilized in any research studies beyond the initial work describing the instrument. The Ambiguous Intentions Hostility Questionnaire (AIHQ) was developed as a measure of the tendency to perceive hostile intentions in ambiguous situations. The AIHQ, when tested in a sample of college students, was unrelated to psychosis proneness, and demonstrated good interrater reliability. Although intended for use in non-psychotic populations, it has been utilized to study hostile attribution in psychotic populations. The AIHQ has seen wider dissemination than the PPDFQ. In a predominantly non-psychotic sample of online Korean job-seekers, hostile attribution, as measured by the AIHQ, is related to deficiencies in theory of mind

Longitudinal Course and Comorbidity

Very little is known about the longitudinal course of PPD. We know that PPD traits decline by 46% from adolescence to early adulthood (Johnson et al., 2000). This conforms to the general pattern seen in personality disorder A small study following a clinical sample found that PPD showed short term stability relative to schizoid personality disorder. PPD did not show the same kind of clinical deterioration as was found with a comparison group of schizoid PD.

An estimated 75% of PPD cases have a comorbid personality disorder. Avoidant and BPD are the most frequently comorbid (48% and 48%), along with Narcissistic PD (35.9%). In forensic settings, the combination of PPD + Antisocial Personality Disorder was the second most common cluster, after Antisocial + Narcissistic Personality Disorder. Substance abuse problems and panic disorder are also frequent comorbidities

Risk Factors

Childhood trauma has consistently been identified as a risk factor for PPD, in at least 4 cross-sectional studies and one longitudinal study. The longitudinal study found that childhood emotional neglect, physical neglect, and supervision neglect predicted PPD symptom levels in adolescence and early adulthood. In adolescence, PPD has been cross-sectionally associated with elevated physical abuse in childhood and adolescence, but not sexual abuse  In this study, patients with PPD were also more likely to have PTSD. In a study of psychiatric adult outpatients, PPD was found to associated with both sexual and physical abuse. These relationships were found with other personality disorders as well, and were not specific to PPD. Childhood abuse was also related to PPD symptom level, suggesting a dose-response relationship, even when PPD symptoms were subthreshold for the diagnosis. Although these studies have focused on chronic trauma from caregivers, acute physical trauma in the form of childhood burn injury has also found to be a risk factor for adult PPD traits.

Brain trauma has been hypothesized to be a risk factor for paranoia. Empirical, cross-sectional research finds that between 8.3 – 26% of brain injury patients meet PPD criteria PPD was the second most common PD following TBI. Longitudinal studies in this area are lacking, but are needed to establish the temporal sequence of the association. Another important question regarding the associating with brain injury and PPD is if the relationship is due to neural circuit dysfunction, or if a change in function as result of the injury alters social interactions. As an example of this, persons who are hard of hearing are more likely to develop paranoia, likely through increased difficulty with and stress from communication with others

Theoretical Models of PPD

Psychodynamic

Based on the case of Schreber, who exhibited paranoid delusions, Freud theorized that paranoia is an externalizing defense against unconscious homosexual wishes There has been little theoretical or empirical support for anxiety about homosexual urges as a cause of paranoia, but theoretical work has preserved the idea of paranoia representing an outward projection of inward conflict. These have varied from shame to an intolerance to indifference. Otto Kernberg classified PPD as a subtype of borderline character pathology, a “lower order” level of character organization characterized by minimal super-ego integration, excessive aggressive drives, and a tendency towards primitive mental processes such as splitting. It is interesting that Kernberg saw both BPD and PPD as sharing characteristics with psychotic patients, but generally capable of reality testing in a way that psychotic patients are not capable of. The question of PPD’s relationship with psychosis was a theme that was later to preoccupy empirical work regarding the heritability and family history of PPD. Psychodynamic theory also anticipated interest in the role of trauma as a risk factor. The psychological process of splitting is theorized to result from disturbed attachments, with the cognitive style of the individual determining how such early life attachment trauma would lead to specific personality disorder symptoms

Empirical work has provided mixed support for psychodynamic theories of PPD and paranoia. A systematized, self-psychological model emerged in the 1990s that posited that paranoid delusions arise when an individual is unable to tolerate the discrepancy between an implicit, negative view of the self and a conflicting, idealized positive self-concept. In such individuals, blame must be externalized to another person in the form of paranoid delusions . However, later work failed to replicate support for the importance of the discrepancy between implicit and explicit experiences of the self. Instead, it has supported a simple, direct relationship between paranoia and low self-esteem and shame

Cognitive

Cognitive theories of PPD have tended to emphasize dysfunctional beliefs about the self, cognitive style, and social cognition. Aaron Beck has theorized that individuals with PPD hold dysfunctional beliefs of themselves as lacking efficacy while others are malicious and deceptive: this leads to fears about vulnerability, a tendency towards guardedness, and discomfort with emotional closeness. The role of projection and emotion is thus deemphasized, although there are some parallels with psychodynamic theories in its postulating that a concept of self-deficiency is at the core of PPD. There has been some limited empirical support of Beck’s theory of PPD. In a study of college students, negative beliefs about self and others predicted paranoia. In clinical populations, hypersensitivity to criticism, a form of psychological vulnerability, is associated with paranoia.

A tendency towards a reasoning bias that jumps to conclusions has been a consistent and robustly replicated finding of empirical research in paranoia This work must be interpreted in light of the severe thought disorder encountered in psychotic populations. Research in samples with non-psychotic, PPD individuals has confirmed that the same reasoning bias applies in PPD. Similarly, in community samples on non-psychotic, non-patients, “jumping to conclusions” is predictive of paranoia. Although findings of a reasoning bias in PPD are not surprising, it is not yet known why this reasoning bias occurs, and to what degree it reflects a vulnerability to psychotic disorders. Given the weight of evidence that PPD does not represent a schizophrenia-spectrum psychiatric disorder, it seems likely that reasoning bias alone is not a sufficient explanation of paranoia.

Social Cognition

The demographics of PPD reviewed previously suggest that social factors are important risk factors. The importance of childhood trauma as a predictor of PPD symptoms indicates that social learning and relationship history may in fact play a causal role in the development of the disorder. Lower social rank is correlated with paranoia . Lower social rank may lead to paranoia due to a change in how the individual experiences social interactions, termed “dysphoric self-consciousness” (Kramer et al., 1998). A study in graduate business school students found that people with short tenure (1st and 2nd year students), compared to those with seniority, are more likely to personalize antagonistic experiences. This state can be described as hypervigilant. In order to probe the direction of causality, an intriguing study using virtual reality found that lowering the apparent height of an individual in a simulated social interaction increased paranoid, suspicious interpretations of interactions. The results of this experimental study confirm a causal role of self-consciousness in social interactions in the generation of paranoia. It is also possible that deficits in social cognition may promote suspicion. Lower perspective taking ability in a role playing task has been found to predict the development of Cluster A personality disorders and delusional disorder. Poor theory of mind skills are related to traits of hostility]. In an experimental study, the presence of theory of mind deficits was predictive of paranoid attribution. In total, the role of social context and innate “social skills” in the form of cognitive empathy appears to play in important role in the formation of paranoid thoughts. As of yet, there has been no empirical research examining social cognition in PPD.

Computational and Biological Models of Paranoia

One of the first computerized “chatbots” was programmed by a psychiatrist to simulate a paranoid psychological process. PARRY was programmed to interact by text with a human in conversation]. PARRY was prone to experiencing shame in the form of thoughts of himself as stupid or crazy, triggered easily by social interaction. As negative affect rises, PARRY searches for whom to blame. The negative affect has a decay function: if the conversation continues without triggering shame, negative affect returns to baseline after a time, and PARRY’s paranoia remains at bay. PARRY is also capable of instigating projective identification, as his increasingly hostile responses have the potential to elicit negative responses from the human interacting with him. This positive feedback loop between PARRY and a human user can lead to escalating paranoia. One fascinating implication of PARRY provides an important insight for psychotherapists engaging with PPD individuals: if they can delay triggering shame until the completion of the decay function of negative affect, they can shape the behavior of the paranoid personality.

An interesting cognitive and computational model has been described based on the finding that antipsychotic drugs, which block the D2 receptor, suppress the conditioned avoidance response. In the conditioned avoidance response, the subject learns to eventually avoid an unconditioned, noxious heralded by a conditioned, neutral stimulus, by escaping it. In the typical experiment, avoidance and escape are afforded by two chambers, one of which is the avoidance and escape chamber. In the CAR model of paranoia, paranoid thoughts are created by the psychological escape behavior of externalizing blame, and maintained by avoidance behaviors such as isolation. One of the key insights afforded by the model is that conditioned avoidance is extremely resistant to extinction, a property that perfectly characterizes on of the most vexing aspects of paranoia. Again, this model provides an important clue for psychotherapy and rehabilitation regarding the role of social isolation in perpetuating paranoid ideation.

Neurobiology

The biological literature on PPD is sparse, but some interesting clues have emerged regarding a biological mechanism. In an experiment involving brain sensory processing as measured by EEG event related potentials (ERPs) to auditory stimuli, PPD was found to have a faster latency of the N100 Event Related Potential (ERP) to auditory stimuli, suggesting hypervigilance. PPD cases had normal mismatch negativity (MMN) in this study. MMN is the increase in the amplitude of the N100 ERP to a second tone that does not match the preceding tone, and is reduced in schizophrenia. The findings from this study suggest that PPD has important neurophysiological differences from schizophrenia, and may be characterized by hypervigilance to the environment.

A study of cerebrospinal fluid levels of stress neuropeptide corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) in a sample of personality disordered and normal adults found that CRH levels were inversely related to childhood history of parental care. In this sample, PPD, but not BPD, was associated with elevated CRH concentration (39.8 pg/ml vs 27.1 pg/ml; see Figure 1). Although CRH is best known for its role in the stress response and anxiety, in primates direct brain injection of exogenous CRH caused radically altered emotional expression and social behavior behavior in rhesus monkeys. Administration of CRH induced “wall facing” behavior, in which the normally social monkeys appeared withdrawn and non-interactive. One must wonder if the wall facing behavior observed after CRH administration is not a form of paranoid social anxiety like that found in PPD.

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Levels of CSF CRH in PPD

PPD subjects (n = 8) had significantly higher levels of CSF CRH than normal control subjects (n=18).

Social stress, as reviewed previously, appears to be a risk factor for paranoia. Given convincing evidence of the role of the dopamine D2 receptor type in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia, dopamine may also play a role in the pathophysiology of PPD. In animal models, social defeat stress increases dopamine release as measured by microdialysis of the nucleus accumbens (NAC) and prefrontal cortex, suggesting that the paranoia of PPD may be driven by central dopamine elevations. Although there have been no biological investigations of dopamine signaling in PPD, research has examined the familial relationship between PPD and psychotic disorders.

The Cluster A personality disorders have long been hypothesized to be related to schizophrenia. Family studies have presented mixed evidence, with 3 of 4 blinded family association studies reporting increased familial risk for PPD in schizophrenic probands (reviewed in Webb & Levinson, 1993). However, the data are sparse and the strength of association between PPD and schizophrenia is weaker than that between Schizotypal Personality Disorder and schizophrenia. In one blind family study, PPD was in fact more common in relatives of unipolar depressives than schizophrenics. The genetic relationship between PPD and delusional disorder has more supportive evidence. 30% of family members of delusional disorder have paranoid personality disorder traits, compared to 3% of family members of controls. In contrast , schizoid and schizotypal personality disorder are more common in families of schizophrenics and less common in families of delusional disorder patients. Offspring of parents with schizophrenia have been found to be at higher risk for avoidant and schizotypal personality disorder, but not PPD. These results were echoed in an adoption study, which showed that adopted away offspring of mothers with schizophrenia had higher rates of schizotypal but not PPD. Furthermore, in adopted away offspring of mothers with schizophrenia spectrum disorders, no signal was found for PPD. In summary, studies examining the genetic relatedness of PPD to schizophrenia have found some evidence of a relationship, but the relationship between schizophrenia and schizotypal personality disorder is stronger. PPD appears instead to have a genetic relationship to affective disorder and delusional disorder. This work would suggest that PPD does not represent a dopaminergic psychosis. Biological research is needed to further test the connection between dopaminergic function and PPD.

Treatment of Paranoid Personality Disorder

Relatively little is known about the treatment of PPD. Partly due to a mistrust of and reluctance to participate in research by persons with PPD, the lack of knowledge is also the consequence of PPD’s clinical significance being underappreciated. There are no FDA approved medications for PPD, nor for its frequently comorbid condition of BPD. There have been no clinical trials specific to PPD.

Given the frequent comorbidity of PPD and BPD, indirect evidence may be gleaned from treatment trials for BPD. These have measured the effects of psychopharmacological treatment on aggression, which is highly correlated with suspicious and hostile traits. Meta-analysis of clinical trials in BPD find evidence for positive effects on aggression by antipsychotic medications (Standardized Mean Difference (SMD) = −0.31) antidepressants (SMD = −0.55 ), and mood stabilizers (SMD = −1.83). Given the relatively small size of the trials, the computed effect sizes are not reliable and difficult to compare. Nonetheless, it is interesting to note that antipsychotics as a class do not have a large effect on aggression, and refute the assumption that PPD is treatable with the same tools as the treatment of psychosis.

Little is known about effective psychotherapeutic approaches to PPD. Some cases of PPD seek psychoanalysis. These are usually not identified in the clinical assessment, but nonetheless are accepted for analysis less than 1/3rd of the time. In cases suitable for psychoanalysis, the symptoms are less severe, the case is comorbid with BPD, and the diagnosis is often missed by the clinician. In theory, many of the approaches in transference focused psychotherapy, found to be effective for BPD should work in PPD. However, published trials do not comment on comorbidity with PPD. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) of PPD has been advocated for, based on a model of externalized shame, which shares a common language with psychodynamic models (Beck et al., 2004). Systematic data is lacking regarding CBT, although case studies support its potential effectiveness. Experimental data provide intriguing clues about potential approaches. In a study of social exclusion using the cyber ball game, cognitive reappraisal was surprisingly found to increase, rather than decrease paranoia in paranoia prone individuals. It is tempting to explain this finding based on resistance to extinction of the Conditioned Avoidant Response (CAR); the paranoid patient may be negatively motivated to reappraise their feelings and beliefs. The validating pose of Dialectical Behavioral Therapy provides a potential solution to this problem. Because the paranoid anxiety of PPD is neither delusional nor bizarre, clinicians may be able to see some truth in the suspicious of PPD. Pointing this out could help to exit the interaction from a positive feedback loop of suspicious hostility by diffusing tension and mistrust. Computational models suggest slowing down the pace of therapy may be advantageous, to “wait out” labile emotional reactions. This would suggest that clinicians should titrate the intensity of psychotherapy sessions by the emotional and physiological state of the client.

Mentalization based treatment (MBT) is a validated approach to BPD that combines approaches from psychodynamic therapy, CBT, and interpersonal psychotherapy. MBT emphasizes building the capacity to mentalize, a psychological skill related to cognitive empathy and Theory of Mind. Although no MBT trials have specifically targeted PPD, when PPD was comorbid with BPD, PPD did not appear to predict treatment nonresponse (Bateman, personal communication).

Although these psychotherapeutic approaches have promise, there is reason for caution. Data from a large number of patients in intensive psychotherapeutic day treatment programs reveal that PPD is an important predictor of treatment failure and dropout (Karterud et al., 2003) This appeared to be true whether or not PPD occurred by itself, or comorbid with BPD.

Descriptive Data

We present descriptive data from the research program of the Clinical Neuroscience and Psychopharmacology Research Unit at The University of Chicago, Department of Psychiatry. Over the last seventeen years, a total of 115 adults with PPD have been studied, along with 208 individuals with BPD and 417 normal controls. 71 of the PPD cases have comorbid BPD, making BPD an interesting and important comparison group. All subjects were recruited either through clinical referrals or media advertisements seeking volunteers for research regarding problems with anger, mood, suicide, and aggression. All subjects provided written, informed consent with consent forms approved by the IRB of The University of Chicago.

Demographic data are displayed in Table 2, broken down into four groups: PPD+BPD, PPD Alone, BPD Alone, and Normal Control. A higher percentage of PPD patients (61%) are African American compared to 20% of the normal control group. These race differences confirm previous findings of higher rates of African Americans in PPD  and are likely due to differential exposure to stress and trauma.

Table 2

Demographics

Demographic data summarized across the four subject groups.

PPD+BPD Paranoid PD Borderline PD Normal
Number 32 (6.8 %) 31 (6.6 %) 92 (19.6%) 313 (66.7%)
Age 37 34 35 34
Gender (female) 52 (73.2%) 20 (45.5%) 137 (66.5%) 207 (49.8%)
Caucasian 16 (50%) 10 (32%) 39 (42%) 204 (65.2%)
African American 11 (34%) 19 (61%) 36 (39.1%) 64 (20.4%)
Hispanic 3 (12.5%) 1 (3.2%) 13 (14.1%) 12 (3.8%)
Asian 1 (3.2%) 2 (2.2%) 17 (5%)
Hollingshead 34.9 33.8 38.01 47.12

Chi-Square analysis reveals significant race differences between PPD and NC subjects (χ2 (5, N = 518) = 38.75, p < .001) but not between PPD and BPD subjects subjects (χ2 (4, N = 248) = 5.11, p = .28)

The clinical data in Table 3 reveals that individuals in the PPD-only group meet, on average more than 2 BPD criteria. On the other hand, BPD individuals meet on average only 1.5 PPD criteria. Data were analyzed using ANCOVA, covarying for age and gender; all results are two-tailed. Although both PPD and BPD have a higher rate of suicide attempt and self-injurious behavior relative to normal controls, BPD has a significantly higher rate of suicide and self-injurious behavior than PPD. Interestingly, the comorbid PPD+BPD group has a higher rate of suicide attempt and self-injurious behavior than the PPD only group but the comorbid PPD+BPD group did not have a higher rate of suicide attempt and self-injurious behavior than the BPD group. This suggests that having comorbid PPD does not increase the risk of suicide or self-injury in individuals with BPD, while having comorbid BPD does increase the risk of suicide in individuals with PPD. This is the first data that we are aware of addressing the risk of suicide and self-injury in PPD.

Table 3

Clinical Characteristics

Summary of the clinical characteristics of the four subject groups.

PPD + BPD
N = 71
Paranoid PD
N = 44
Borderline PD
N = 205
Normal
N = 417
#BPD Criteria 6.27 (1.32) 2.23 (1.12) 6.17 (1.254)
#PPD Criteria 4.54 (.753) 4.41 (.948) 1.50 (1.06)
Suicide Attempt 33 (46.5%) 7 (15.9%) 76 (36.9%) 0*
Self Injury 21 (29.6%) 1 (2.3%) 63 (30.6%) 0*
Legal (arrests) 2.91 3.77 2.12 0.15*
MDD (current) 25 (35.2%) 5 (11.4%) 72 (35%) 0*
MDD (past) 27 (38%) 14 (31.8%) 82 (39.8%) 0*
IED 44 (62%) 25 (56.8%) 98 (47.6%) 0*
PTSD (current) 24 (33.8%) 6 (13.6%) 46 (22.3%) 0*
*Chi Square tests reveal that BPD is more likely to have a history of suicide attempt than PPD (Chi Square (1, 249) = 7.30, p = .008) and history of self-injurious behavior (Chi Square (1, 249) = 15.36, p < .001). BPD+PPD was more likely than PPD to have suicide attempts (Chi-Square = 11.19, p < .001) and self-injurious behavior (Chi-Square = 13.09, p < .001). There were no significant differences between the BPD+PPD and BPD groups.

Replicating the association of PPD with childhood trauma, PPD is associated with higher levels of emotional abuse, emotional neglect, physical abuse, physical neglect, and sexual abuse relative to normal control subjects, as measured by the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ) (Table 4). There were no significant differences between PPD+BPD, PPD-only, and BPD groups for any of the CTQ subscale scores. The results confirm previous reports of strong relationships between PPD and childhood trauma. Interestingly, PPD, unlike BPD, was not correlated with the CTQ Lie scale, a measure of positive response bias. This would suggest that retrospective reports of childhood trauma by PPD individuals are not contaminated by response bias.

Table 4

Childhood Trauma

CTQ subscale scores across the four subject groups: All three subject groups had significantly higher CTQ subscale scores relative to normal controls.

PPD + BPD
N = 32
Mean
F-test
p-value
Paranoid PD
N = 31
Mean
F-test
p-value
Borderline PD
N = 91
Mean
F-test
p-value
Normal
N = 295
Mean
F-test
p-value
Emotional Abuse 15.53 (4.77) 11.97 (5.34) 14.37 (5.0) 6.79 (2.84)
F = 14.450 F = 16.588 F = 102.7
p < .001 p < .001 p < .001
Emotional Neglect 14.9 (5.09) 12.74 (5.24) 13.79 (5.28) 8.17 (3.82)
F = 7.817 F = 10.468 F = 39.489
p = .005 p < .001 p < .001
Physical Abuse 10.78 (4.7) 10.23 (4.88) 11.26 (5.21) 6.2 (2.1)
F = 21.220 F = 7.593 F = 35.71
p < .001 p = .001 p < .001
Physical Neglect 9.47 (2.98) 8.38 (3.84) 8.71 (3.65) 5.86 (1.78)
F = 6.399 F = 10.435 F = 3.741
p = .012 p < .001 p < .001
Sexual Abuse 9.16 (6.1) 8.35 (5.67) 9.43 (6.56) 5.28 (1.49)
F = 12.185 F = 3.017 F = 12.185
p = .001 p = .05 p < .001
Minimization .06 (.25) .26 (.58) .11 (.40) .67 (1.0)
F = 2.904 F = 1.872 F = 11.195
p = .09 p = .16 p < .001

No significant differences were found between BPD+PPD and BPD, BPD+BPD and PPD, PPD and BPD.

Relationships between PPD and impulsivity and aggression are depicted in Table 5. Overall, both BPD and PPD are characterized by higher levels of impulsivity and aggression than normal controls. However, BPD is more impulsive and more self-injurious than PPD, the latter finding mirroring the higher rate of suicide attempt in BPD. However, PPD is significantly more aggressive than BPD. Effects of comorbidity are also seen. PPD comorbidity with BPD increases aggression relative to BPD alone. BPD comorbidity with PPD increases impulsivity and self-aggression. These results highlight the importance of recognizing PPD when it is comorbid with other more widely acknowledged personality disorders.

Table 5

Aggression and Self-Aggression

Impulsivity and Life History of Aggression (LHA) and subscale scores for the four subject groups.

PPD + BPD
N = 57
Mean
F-test
p-value
Paranoid PD
N = 43
Mean
F-test
p-value
Borderline PD
N = 176
Mean
F-test
p-value
Normal
N = 373
Mean
F-test
p-value
Barratt Total Impulsiveness 76.08 (11.67) 67.07 (10.09) 73.16 (11.14) 55.96 (9.28)
F = 5.29 F = 11.06 F = 87.64
p = .02 p < .001 p < .001
LHA Aggression 18.65 (4.70) 18.91 (4.74) 16.92 (5.28) 4.81 (3.52)
F = 83.24 F = 86.81 F = 107.37
p < .001 p < .001 p < .001
LHA Self-Aggression 1.73 (2.13) .29 (.71) 1.70 (2.44) .01 (.18)
F = .204 F = 1.2 F = 67.43
p = .652 p = .302 p < .001
LHA Antisocial Behavior 7.79 (5.08) 8.33 (4.63) 6.33 (4.98) .62 (1.32)
F = 34.203 F = 45.63 F = 62.00
p < .001 p < .001 p < .001
LHA Total 28.21 (9.00) 27.5 (8.36) 24.86 (8.77) 5.45 (3.99)
F = 87.45 F = 98.50 F = 12.185
p < .001 p < .001 p < .001

BPD > PPD for BIS-11 Impulsivity (t (t, 134) = −2.56, p = .01) and Self-Aggression (t (1, 208) = −6.58, p = .02). PPD > BPD for Aggression (t (1, 217) = 2.26, p = .03), Antisocial Behavior (t (1, 65.84)=2.37, p = .02). PPD+BPD > BPD for LHA Total (t (1, 228) = 2.47, p = .01). PPD+BPD > PPD for Impulsivity (t (1, 61) = 3.21, p = .002 and Self-Aggression (t (1, 4. = 4.23, p < .001)).

A subset of subjects completed a multi-dimensional questionnaire assessment of cognitive and emotional empathy, the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) (Table 6). So, for reasons of statistical power, two separate ANOVAs were computed to control PPD and BPD to normal controls. PPD and BPD shared a pattern of diminished cognitive empathy (decreased Perspective Taking), and some aspects of enhanced emotional empathy (increased Personal Distress). These data replicate previous work finding decreased cognitive empathy and intact or increased emotional empathy in BPD, and suggest that PPD shares a similar profile with respect to empathy. To our knowledge, this is the first characterization of social cognition in PPD.

Table 6

Empathy

Empathy measures from the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) for the four subject groups. Due to the limited sample size, power was lacking for a single model incorporating PPD and BPD.

PPD + BPD
N = 6
Mean
F-test
p-value
Paranoid PD
N = 11
Mean
F-test
p-value
Borderline PD
N = 26
Mean
F-test
p-value
Normal
N = 81
Mean
F-test
p-value
Perspective Taking 16.00 (4.69) 16.80 (3.56) 16.9 (4.78) 19.10 (4.83)
F = 3.84 F = 10.86
p = .05* p = .001*
Empathic Concern 19.67 (4.97) 19.60 (2.30) 19.2 (4.12) 19.3 (4.93)
F = .08 F = .96
p = 77 p = .33
Personal Distress 13.33 (5.64) 13.60 (3.58) 12.60 (5.22) 8.71 (4.65)
F = 8.01 F = 10.203
p = .01* p = .002*
Fantasy 14.17 (5.31) 15.40 (5.59) 15.3 (4.76) 14.33 (5.81)
F = .00 F = .14
p = 1.0 p = .71
*For exploratory purposes, two separate Multivariate ANCOVAs were performed for PPD and BPD (shown in the table). Comparisons between the PPD+BPD, PPD, and BPD groups did not result in any significant differences.

In summary, descriptive data from this sample of PPD and BPD cases confirm that PPD, like BPD, is associated with childhood trauma. Aggression is encountered in both disorders, but is more outwardly directed in PPD and more inwardly directed in BPD. BPD is more closely associated with impulsivity, suicide risk, and self-injury. Given the relationship of paranoia with social cognition, it is interesting to note that our preliminary data suggest that PPD, like BPD, is deficient in cognitive empathy.

Summary

Since its inception by Kraepelin, who presciently distinguished PPD from dementia praecox, PPD has continued to be a relevant description of a group of humans with a severe, debilitating mental disorder. For a disorder that has attracted scant attention, there has been surprisingly coherence between the theoretical and empirical science regarding it. Social and developmental factors point to stress, trauma and neglect as likely being causative. Although among the personality disorders, BPD is the most automatically associated with childhood trauma, individuals with PPD are likely to endorse neglect, physical abuse, and sexual abuse in their past. A psychological theory of paranoia and PPD has been built around the observation that PPD individuals are characterized by negative emotionality, hypervigilance, cognitive rigidity, and an aggressive, hostile disposition. The dominant theme in psychodynamic and contemporary psychological approach is externalized hostility, triggered by a vulnerable, fragile sense of self in the context of stressful social interactions. Biological data are scarce, but reinforce the phenotypic characteristics of hypervigilance and stress reactivity. Knowledge about treatment approaches remains general, but available data paint a picture of a disorder that is often comorbid with BPD and perhaps even more challenging to treat. Descriptive data are presented which reinforce this portrait of PPD as related to trauma, social adversity, risk of aggressive behavior, and impaired social cognition.

There are several critical questions for future research. The question of the dimensional versus syndromic nature of PPD is not yet fully answered. Available data on the whole support the dimensional approach, but assessment approaches need to be validated and standardized to be useful in the clinic. The position of PPD relative delusional disorders and schizophrenia has been clarified, but the boundary between non-psychotic paranoia and paranoid delusions must be more clearly defined by empirical research. Although biological data regarding the mechanism of PPD are scarce, what is known so far supports the potentially enormous value of the NIMH rDOC approach, which organizes PPD symptoms under the negatively valenced emotion and social processes categories. Anchoring the clinical and psychological approach to PPD in brain-based systems of negative affect and social processes could substantially accelerate the progress of research. There is an enormous body of neuroscience regarding the neural circuits mediating normal emotional and social behavior that can be applied to PPD. We think it is likely that these milestones must be reached to enable achieving the ultimate goal of treating, or even curing, PPD.

While acknowledging the current limitations of the science of PPD, it would be a mistake to discount the value of expertise regarding PPD in the clinic. In our experience, being able to identify PPD in difficult clinical scenarios is needed to perceive and understand the underlying psychopathological process. This has powerful predictive value for treatment planning and avoiding the kind of misunderstandings that can lead to negative outcomes. Most clinicians encounter PPD cases in the clinic, hospital, or forensic setting, and it is probable that these cases are among the most challenging they will encounter.

Acknowledgments

The research was partially funded by 1R21MH083309 (PI: Royce Lee). The descriptive data come from subjects recruited for research studies by Royce Lee, M.D., and Emil F. Coccaro, M.D.

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https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5793931/

Ken jij iemand met een paranoïde persoonlijkheidsstoornis?

Ken jij iemand met een paranoïde persoonlijkheidsstoornis?

Het voornaamste kenmerk van een paranoïde persoonlijkheidsstoornis is een algemene achterdocht en wantrouwen ten aanzien van anderen. De betrokkene interpreteert de motieven van andere mensen als kwaadaardig. Meestal wordt dit patroon herkend als de persoon volwassen is. Maar soms zijn er voordien al signalen die in verschillende situaties te merken zijn. Mensen die aan deze stoornis lijden, gaan ervan uit dat andere mensen hen uitbuiten, kwetsen of bedriegen. Toch is er niets concreet dat deze ideeën ondersteunt.

Mensen met een paranoïde persoonlijkheidsstoornis verdenken andere mensen ervan dat ze tegen hen samenzweren. Toch is er geen enkele bewijs dat dit ondersteunt. Ze denken ook vaak dat andere mensen hen zonder reden plotseling kunnen aanvallen. Ze vertonen dus altijd een defensieve houding.

De wereld is een vijandige plaats en ik moet mezelf beschermen

Mensen die aan deze stoornis lijden, hebben vaak het gevoel dat ze op een diepgaande en onomkeerbare manier door iemand of door meerdere anderen gekwetst werden. Dit gevoel is zelfs aanwezig wanneer er geen bewijs van beschadiging is of wanneer het kwetsen niet opzettelijk was. Ze hebben ongegronde twijfels over de trouw van hun vrienden of kennissen. Voor hen is de wereld een onveilige en erg bedreigende plaats om in te leven.

Personen met een paranoïde persoonlijkheidsstoornis onderzoeken zorgvuldig de acties van hun geliefden. Op die manier proberen ze vijandige bedoelingen te ontdekken. Elke schending van de eerlijkheid of van de trouw die ze opmerken,  dient gewoon om hun verborgen vermoedens te ondersteunen. We bezitten allemaal een zekere bevestigende vooringenomenheid waarmee we sommige aspecten van de werkelijkheid tegenover anderen omvatten. Maar deze mensen hebben meer uitgesproken vooroordelen.

Wanhopige vrouw met handen in haar

Deze mensen zijn verrast wanneer een vriend toont dat hij hen trouw is. Ze kunnen het niet echt vertrouwen of geloven niet dat het waar is. Als ze in de problemen komen, verwachten ze dat hun vrienden en hun familie hen zullen aanvallen of negeren. Als ze hulp krijgen, zullen ze denken dat de persoon die hen deze hulp biedt, verborgen motieven heeft.

“Het essentiële kenmerk van de paranoïde persoonlijkheidsstoornis is een patroon van algemene achterdocht en wantrouwen tegenover anderen.”

Moeilijke relaties

Individuen met een paranoïde persoonlijkheidsstoornis hebben het moeilijk anderen te vertrouwen. Ze onderhouden ook met tegenzin een hechte relatie met anderen in stand. Dat komt omdat ze bang zijn dat de informatie die ze delen tegen hen gebruikt zal worden. Ze kunnen dus weigeren om persoonlijke vragen te beantwoorden en zeggen dan dat die informatie niemand aangaat. want in onschuldige opmerkingen zien zij verborgen betekenissen die kleinerend en bedreigend zijn.

Een persoon met deze stoornis kan bijvoorbeeld een onschuldige fout van een winkelbediende interpreteren als een opzettelijke poging om hem te bedriegen. Ze kunnen ook een grappige opmerking van een collega opvatten als een rechtstreekse aanval met voorbedachte rade. Bovendien interpreteren ze complimenten vaak verkeerd. Ze kunnen ook een aanbod om hen te helpen zien als kritiek op hoe zij de dingen doen. Want ze hebben soms ook het gevoel dat de andere persoon hen helpt omdat hij denkt dat ze onbekwaam zijn.

Behandel mij goed of je zal de gevolgen dragen

Mensen met een paranoïde persoonlijkheidsstoornis zijn haatdragend. Ze zijn niet bereid beledigingen of minachting te vergeven die zij menen ontvangen te hebben. Zelfs kleine terechtwijzingen kunnen hen erg agressief maken. Bovendien kan hun woede en vijandigheid lang blijven bestaan.

Ze zijn dus altijd op zoek naar de veronderstelde slechte bedoelingen van anderen. Dus hebben ze ook vaak het gevoel dat hun karakter of hun reputatie aangevallen wordt. Of ze denken dat ze op één of andere manier ondermijnd worden. Ze gaan dan ook snel in de tegenaanval. Dan reageren ze woedend op de beledigingen die ze krijgen. Deze mensen kunnen ook op een pathologische manier jaloers zijn. Vaak verdenken ze hun partner ervan dat hij of zij niet trouw is, ook al hebben ze hiervoor geen enkel bewijs.

De zeven voornaamste symptomen van een paranoïde persoonlijkheidsstoornis

Je kan je dus voorstellen dat mensen met een paranoïde persoonlijkheidsstoornis meestal erg moeilijk zijn om mee om te gaan. Ze hebben dan ook vaak problemen in hun relaties. Met deze stoornis zijn vele symptomen en gevolgen verbonden. Dit zijn enkele van de voornaamste symptomen:

  • Ongefundeerde achterdocht dat anderen hen uitbuiten of kwetsen. Ze hebben ook vaak het gevoel dat mensen hen in de steek laten.
  • Ongegronde twijfels over de trouw of het vertrouwen van vrienden of collega’s.
  • Weinig bereidheid om anderen te vertrouwen. Dit is een gevolg van de ongegronde angst dat de informatie op een kwaadaardige manier tegen hen gebruikt wordt.
  • Ze zien bedreigingen of kleinerende betekenissen in onschuldige opmerkingen die mensen zonder ook maar enige boze opzet maken.
  • Wrok koesteren (ze vergeten de veronderstelde beledigingen, krenkingen of terechtwijzingen niet).
  • Het idee dat anderen hun karakter of hun reputatie aanvallen. Ze reageren gemakkelijk met woede of gaan in de tegenaanval.
  • Terugkerende achterdocht waarvoor geen rechtvaardiging is, omtrent de trouw van de echtgenoot of partner.
Paranoïde persoonlijkheidsstoornis

Achterdocht en vijandigheid zijn hun keurmerk

De buitensporige achterdocht en vijandigheid bij mensen met een paranoïde persoonlijkheidsstoornis betekent dat ze vaak openlijk over iets discussiëren. Dit kan zich uiten in de vorm van voortdurend klagen of van een afstandelijke maar duidelijk vijandige houding. Omdat ze uitermate op hun hoede zijn voor mogelijke bedreigingen, kunnen ze op een voorzichtige, heimelijke of boosaardige manier handelen.

Deze mensen lijken vaak kil, alsof ze weinig gevoelens hebben en verstoken zijn van liefde. Hun twistzieke en achterdochtige aard kan bij anderen een vijandige reactie uitlokken. Dit zal dan op zijn beurt hun oorspronkelijke verwachtingen bevestigen (het is dus een soort self-fulling prophecy).

“Mensen met een paranoïde persoonlijkheidsstoornis hebben vaak dit soort gedachten: “Ze willen mij erbij lappen,” “Ze zullen mij verraden,” “Ze lachen mij uit.”

Wanneer alles controleren niet langer voldoet

Omdat mensen met een paranoïde persoonlijkheid anderen niet vertrouwen, hebben ze het enorm nodig om in staat te zijn alles alleen aan te kunnen. Want dat geeft hen een sterk gevoel van autonomie. Ze hebben ook een grote mate van controle over hun omgeving nodig. Vaak zijn ze rigide en niet in staat om samen te werken. Bovendien zijn ze erg kritisch over anderen. Maar zelf hebben ze het erg moeilijk om kritiek van anderen te aanvaarden.

De schuld ligt bij iedereen behalve bij mezelf

Deze personen geven meestal anderen de schuld voor hun eigen tekortkomingen. Als reactie op de veronderstelde bedreigingen gaan ze ook vlug in de verdediging. Het gevolg is dat ze snel betrokken raken in wettelijke conflicten. Ze beschuldigen anderen door hen te verwijten van boosaardige bedoelingen. Deze houding is eigenlijk een projectie van hun eigen angsten.

Boze vrouw

Machtsfantasieën

Mensen met een paranoïde persoonlijkheidsstoornis hebben vaak ook grootse, maar onrealistische verborgen fantasieën. Die hebben ook vaak te maken met macht en stand. Ze hebben de neiging om negatieve stereotypen van anderen op te bouwen en dan vooral van etnische groepen die heel anders zijn dan zijzelf.

Ze voelen zich ook aangetrokken tot eenvoudige wereldbeelden en overtuigingen. Dit betekent dat zij van nature ook vaak erg op hun hoede zijn voor dubbelzinnige situaties. Ze brengen zichzelf dus heel zelden in gevaar. Wij kunnen ze ervaren als fanatiek. Want ze klampen zich dikwijls vast aan sekten of groepen andere mensen die hun paranoïde geloofssysteem delen.

Mensen met een paranoïde persoonlijkheidsstoornis ervaren een groot wantrouwen en een intense achterdocht tegenover andere mensen. De motieven van anderen interpreteren ze als kwaadaardig. Ze geven hen ook de schuld van al hun tegenslag. Ze zijn op hun hoede en controleren voortdurend hun omgeving. Want ze willen mogelijke aanvallen of bedreigingen ontdekken.

Voor deze mensen is het leven moeilijk. Ze hebben alle hulp nodig die ze kunnen krijgen. Denk maar even hoe jij je zou voelen als je je hele leven zou denken dat de mensen om je heen je voortdurend schade willen toebrengen.
https://psycholoog.nl/klachten/persoonlijkheid-en-patronen/paranoide-persoonlijkheidsstoornis/

Wat zijn kenmerken van een paranoïde persoonlijkheidsstoornis?

Bij een paranoïde persoonlijkheidsstoornis is er sprake van een hardnekkig wantrouwen en achterdocht naar anderen. Andermans motieven worden als kwaadaardig geïnterpreteerd. Dit begint op jongvolwassen leeftijd en is aanwezig in uiteenlopende situaties, zoals blijkt uit vier (of meer) van de volgende kenmerken:

  • Zonder goede reden anderen verdenken van uitbuiting, schaden of bedreiging;
  • Geobsedeerd zijn met onrechtvaardige twijfels over loyaliteit en betrouwbaarheid van vrienden en/of kennissen;
  • Terughoudend zijn in het in vertrouwen nemen van anderen vanwege de angst dat de informatie kwaadwillig tegen zichzelf wordt gebruikt;
  • Vernederende of bedreigende betekenissen halen uit goedbedoelde opmerkingen of gebeurtenissen;
  • Hardnekkig wrok blijven koesteren;
  • Zich snel aangevallen voelen en boos reageren of in de tegenaanval gaan;
  • Ongerechtvaardigd snel twijfelen aan de trouwheid van zijn of haar partner.

Wat zijn oorzaken van een paranoïde persoonlijkheidsstoornis?

Er is geen eenduidige verklaring voor het ontstaan van een paranoïde persoonlijkheid. Het is een complexe stoornis die (waarschijnlijk) een complexe ontwikkeling kent via genen, opvoeding en omgeving. Het hebben van een ouder met een paranoïde persoonlijkheid maakt de kans bijvoorbeeld groter dat het kind deze houding overneemt. Kinderen spiegelen namelijk veel van hun ouders. Daarnaast kunnen vroegtijdige traumatische gebeurtenissen ook bijdragen aan de ontwikkeling van paranoïde eigenschappen of een paranoïde persoonlijkheid. Denk aan slachtoffer zijn geweest van emotionele- of fysieke verwaarlozing/mishandeling of slachtoffer zijn geweest van pesten. Hieruit kan de overtuiging ontstaan dat mensen niet te vertrouwen zijn of dat mensen uiteindelijk toch verkeerde bedoelingen hebben. 
Het is aannemelijk dat deze omgevingsfactoren versterkt kunnen worden door een bepaalde genetische aanleg, zoals bij meer mentale problemen het geval is.

Hoe vaak komt een paranoïde persoonlijkheidsstoornis voor?

De schatting is dat tussen 2,3% tot 4.4% van de bevolking kampt met een paranoïde persoonlijkheidsstoornis.

Hoe wordt een paranoïde persoonlijkheidsstoornis behandeld?

Een behandeling voor een paranoïde persoonlijkheid is vaak gericht op de aspecten die contact met anderen vermoeilijken. Denk aan een focus op wantrouwen, afstandelijkheid en angst. Dit kan door middel van cognitieve gedragstherapie waarbij overtuigingen en gedachtepatronen worden onderzocht en verbogen naar meer realistische en functionelere overtuigingen en gedachtepatronen.
Daarnaast wordt psychodynamische therapie toegepast als behandeling voor een paranoïde persoonlijkheid. Hierdoor leert iemand inzicht te krijgen in onbewuste gedachten en emoties die invloed hebben op het huidige gedrag. Door deze te verwerken en te begrijpen zal het iemand meer controle geven waardoor ook de relaties met anderen mogelijk zullen verbeteren.

Hoe zit het precies met stoornissen beschreven in de DSM-5?

Wanneer jij verzekerde zorg krijgt (zorg die valt onder de basisverzekering) is een van de voorwaarden dat er een stoornis wordt vastgesteld. Alleen dan kan de zorg vergoed worden vanuit de basisverzekering. Alle psychiatrische stoornissen zijn verzameld in de DSM-5. De DSM-5 is het handboek voor de classificatie van psychische stoornissen.
Een belangrijke kanttekening om bij de DSM-5 te maken is dat de stoornissen die hierin vermeld staan geen diagnoses zijn. De stoornis wordt beschreven aan de hand van een lijstje met symptomen. Voldoe je hieraan, dan ‘heb’ je deze stoornis. De stoornis of het label zegt alleen niets over hoe het komt dat je deze klachten ervaart. Het geeft geen verklaring.
Voldoe jij aan de kenmerken van een stoornis? Dan is die stoornis dus niet de reden dat je klachten hebt, maar slechts een beschrijving van jouw klachten. Wat dan het doel is van het gebruik van de DSM? Het helpt om klachten in duidelijk afgebakende categorieën te kunnen plaatsen. Zo weten we met elkaar iets beter waar we over spreken en hoe we klachten willen behandelen.
Wil jij meer lezen over de DSM-5 en hoe Psycholoog.nl hiermee omgaat? Klik dan hier.
https://psycholoog.nl/klachten/persoonlijkheid-en-patronen/paranoide-persoonlijkheidsstoornis/

Het meest opvallende kenmerk

van iemand met een paranoïde persoonlijkheidsstoornis is een enorm wantrouwen jegens andere mensen. Iemand met deze stoornis is voortdurend achterdochtig naar anderen.

Mensen met een paranoïde persoonlijkheidsstoornis menen steeds dat anderen het slecht met hen voor hebben. Zij zoeken overal iets achter en zijn steeds bang dat andere mensen hen willen vernederen of benadelen. Het contact met iemand met een paranoïde persoonlijkheidsstoornis verloopt vaak problematisch. Conflicten komen regelmatig voor. Om die reden is het voor iemand met dit ziektebeeld moeilijk om mensen aan zich te binden. Steun, bescherming en waardering worden afgewezen of met veel wantrouwen benaderd. Daardoor leidt iemand met een paranoïde persoonlijkheidsstoornis vaak een geïsoleerd bestaan.

Paranoia symptomen

Paranoia symptomen zijn:

  • Anderen, zonder gegronde redenen, verdenken van uitbuiting, het berokkenen van schade en bedriegen
  • Twijfel aan de loyaliteit en betrouwbaarheid van vrienden of collega’s
  • Bang om iemand in vertrouwen te nemen vanwege de ongerechtvaardigde vrees dat informatie tegen je gebruikt wordt

Nog meer paranoïde persoonlijkheidsstoornis kenmerken:

  • Het moeilijk vinden om iemand te vergeven als hij of zij je beledigt of iets onaardigs zegt
  • Achter elke onschuldige opmerking een kleinerende of beledigende betekenis zoeken
  • Voelt zich onterecht aangevallen
  • Twijfelt of de partner wel trouw is

Paranoïde persoonlijkheidsstoornis test

Er bestaat geen kant-en-klare paranoïde persoonlijkheidsstoornis test die je kunt invullen. Onze partner PsyQ heeft wel de beschikking over een persoonlijkheidsstoornis test die je online kunt maken.

Deze online zelftest is niet specifiek gericht op een paranoïde persoonlijkheidsstoornis. De test geeft je een indicatie of je mogelijk een persoonlijkheidsstoornis hebt. Let op! De uitslag van de test geeft je slechts een indicatie en stelt geen diagnose. Als je jezelf in de uitslag herkent is het verstandig contact op te nemen met je huisarts. Hij of zij kan je doorverwijzen naar een gespecialiseerd behandelaar.

Paranoïde persoonlijkheidsstoornis behandeling

Mensen met een paranoïde persoonlijkheidsstoornis zoeken niet vaak hulp. Door hun wantrouwen zullen zij ook een hulpverlener niet snel vertrouwen. Wanneer iemand met een paranoïde persoonlijkheidsstoornis toch  behandeling zoekt, kan psychotherapie helpen om de verschijnselen van een paranoïde persoonlijkheidsstoornis te verminderen. De therapie richt zich voornamelijk op communicatieve vaardigheden, het opbouwen van zelfvertrouwen en betere sociale interactie. Een paranoïde persoonlijkheidsstoornis behandeling wordt geboden door onze partner PsyQ.
https://www.parnassiagroep.nl/uw-probleem/persoonlijkheidsstoornis/paranoide-persoonlijkheidsstoornis

 

BLACK SABBATH – “Paranoid” (Official Video

Behind The Meaning of Black Sabbath’s “Paranoid”

Behind The Meaning

This song is about—you guessed it—a man that is paranoid. In that spirit, the guitar and bass lines create a nervous energy while Osbourne painfully sings, All day long I think of things / But nothing seems to satisfy / Think I’ll lose my mind / If I don’t find something to pacify.
Bassist Geezer Butler went further in-depth on the song’s meaning in 2013 saying, “Basically, it’s just about depression, because I didn’t really know the difference between depression and paranoia. It’s a drug thing; when you’re smoking a joint you get totally paranoid about people, you can’t relate to people. There’s that crossover between the paranoia you get when you’re smoking dope and the depression afterward.”

[RELATED: Ozzy Osbourne Returns to Stage with Black Sabbath Guitarist Tony Iommi]

Osbourne later plays into the drug theme singing Can you help me / Occupy my brain? before ceding that he struggles to find a silver lining in his life: Happiness I cannot feel / And love to me is so unreal.
Though the melancholy song has long been a fan favorite of Black Sabbath’s, the band has long noted that they weren’t thrilled with the end result.
Geezer Butler told Guitar World magazine in 2004, “A lot of the Paranoid album was written around the time of our first album, Black Sabbath. We recorded the whole thing in about two or three days, live in the studio. The song ‘Paranoid’ was written as an afterthought. We basically needed a 3-minute filler for the album, and Tony came up with the riff. I quickly did the lyrics, and Ozzy was reading them as he was singing.”
Tony Iommi further explained, “The song was written as a filler for the album—it was never intended on being anything else. But it became a single because it was a short song, and because it became what it did, most people knew us because of ‘Paranoid’ in them days.”

Finished with my woman ’cause
She couldn’t help me with my mind
People think I’m insane because
I am frowning all the time

All day long I think of things
But nothing seems to satisfy
Think I’ll lose my mind
If I don’t find something to pacify

Can you help me
Occupy my brain?

Not a Singles Band

Following the success of “Paranoid,” Black Sabbath waited two years before deciding to release another single, “Iron Man.” The group did not want to become known as a “singles band” that had kids coming to their shows just to hear the hits. They wanted their fans to be engrossed in the entire album.
“We don’t go into the studio to make singles. We make LPs only,” Iommi once said.

[RELATED: Behind the Meaning and History of the Band Name: Black Sabbath]

“Paranoid” was Black Sabbath’s first self-penned single release. It was much more successful than their previous cover of Crow’s “Evil Woman Don’t Play Your Games With Me.” The track had a huge impact in the U.K., reaching No. 4 on the singles chart.

Pop Culture Appearances

“Paranoid” is one of those songs that gets used in countless films. Among its appearances are Sid and Nancy (1986), Private Parts (1997), Any Given Sunday (1999), Almost Famous (2000), Slugs (2004), We Are Marshall (2006), and Dark Shadows (2012).
This song has also been used in two music-based video games, Guitar Hero III: Legends of Rock and Rock Band.
Photo by Chris Walter/WireImage
https://americansongwriter.com/behind-the-meaning-of-black-sabbaths-paranoid/

 

 

823.543 (advise) Thump up? You agree…
Als je een Duimpje-Op geeft, betekent dit (volgens mij) dat je het ergens mee eens bent.
Voor jouw veiligheid wil ik wel weten of jij beseft met wat jij gezegd hebt het eens te zijn.
(Ik vind dat dus menslievend en kijkend naar wat de ander eventueel wel of niet begrijpt. Dat doen niet veel mensen. Erger nog, veel mensen hanteren hun eigen taal, meestal onbegrijpelijk voor de ander. Zo liegen zij niet, wel ontwijken zij confrontatie en laten zij de ander weerloos achter. Van mij uit gezien)

 

Deelbaar
Een (geheel) getal is deelbaar door een ander (geheel) getal als bij de deling de rest 0 is. Zo is 125 deelbaar door 5, want 125 : 5 = 25 rest 0 en is 128 niet deelbaar door 7.
Algemene schrijfwijze
Dat een getal a deelbaar is door n wordt geschreven als: a is een veelvoud van n, dus , waarbij n, k en a natuurlijke getallen zijn: dan is ook:
Kenmerken van deelbaarheid
Er zijn verschillende tests om te zien of een getal deelbaar is. Die tests zijn over het algemeen gebaseerd op bewerkingen met de cijfers van een getal; daardoor zijn de tests afhankelijk van het talstelsel, alhoewel de deelbaarheid zelf dat natuurlijk niet is. In het decimale talstelsel kent men onder andere de volgende tests voor deelbaarheid. Een getal is deelbaar door:
• 2 als het laatste cijfer 0, 2, 4, 6 of 8 (dat wil zeggen even) is,
• 3 als de cijfersom deelbaar is door 3; deze test kan herhaald worden voor de cijfersom, als die te groot is om deelbaarheid door 3 direct vast te stellen,
• 4 als het getal van de laatste twee cijfers deelbaar door 4 is (3040 is deelbaar door 4 omdat 40 deelbaar door 4 is),
• 5 als het getal eindigt op 0 of 5,
• 6 als het getal even is en deelbaar door 3,
• 7 als het getal, dat verkregen wordt door het laatste cijfer weg te laten en 2 maal af te trekken van het getal gevormd door de overblijvende cijfers, deelbaar is door 7. Zo is bijvoorbeeld. 364 deelbaar door 7, want 36 − 2 × 4 = 28 is deelbaar door 7. Deze bewerking komt er immers op neer dat men het 21-voud van het laatste cijfer aftrekt van het onderzochte getal, en elk 21-voud is deelbaar door 7. Deze test kan herhaald worden voor het verkregen getal, als dat te groot is om deelbaarheid door 7 direct vast te stellen,
• 8 als het getal van de laatste drie cijfers (de rest bij deling door 1000) deelbaar door 8 is,
• 9 als de cijfersom deelbaar is door 9; deze test kan herhaald worden voor de cijfersom, als die te groot is om deelbaarheid door 9 direct vast te stellen
• 10 als het laatste cijfer een 0 is,
• 11 als het resultaat, verkregen door de cijfers afwisselend op te tellen en af te trekken, deelbaar door 11 is (bij herhaald uitvoeren van de procedure komt men uit op 0). Bijvoorbeeld: 2.454.232 is deelbaar door 11, want 2 − 4 + 5 − 4 + 2 − 3 + 2 = 0,
• 12 als het getal zowel deelbaar is door 3 als door 4.
• 13 als het getal, dat verkregen wordt door achtereenvolgens het laatste cijfer weg te laten, dat cijfer op te tellen bij het getal gevormd door de overblijvende cijfers, en af te trekken van de tientallen daarvan, deelbaar is door 13. Zo is bijvoorbeeld 572 deelbaar door 13, want 57 + 2 − 10 × 2 = 39 is deelbaar door 13. Deze bewerking komt er immers op neer dat men het 91-voud van het laatste cijfer aftrekt van het onderzochte getal, en elk 91-voud is deelbaar door 13. Deze test kan herhaald worden voor het verkregen getal, als dat te groot is om deelbaarheid door 13 direct vast te stellen,
• 14 als het getal even is en deelbaar door 7.
• 15 als het getal zowel deelbaar is door 3 als door 5.
Grote getallen kan men ook testen op deelbaarheid door 7 of 13 door de cijfers in groepen van 3 afwisselend op te tellen en af te trekken, en het resultaat te testen op deelbaarheid door 7 of 13. Zo is 2634717358 deelbaar door zowel 7 als 13, want 2 − 634 + 717 − 358 = −273 en 273 is zowel door 7 als door 13 deelbaar. Deze test berust op de gelijkheid 7 × 11 × 13=1001.
Er is een verband tussen deze regeltjes en de deelbaarheid van getallen nabij machten van 10:
• Als een getal een deler van 10n is, zijn de laatste n cijfers genoeg. (zie: 2, 4, 5, 8, 10)
• Als een getal een deler van 10n − 1 is, kan men de cijfersom per n-tal van getallen gebruiken. (zie: 3, 9)
• Als een getal een deler van 10n + 1 is, kan men de ‘afwisselende cijfersom’ per n-tal van getallen gebruiken. (zie: 11, 7, 13)
• Als het getal het product is van 2 getallen die relatief priem zijn, kan men naar die factoren afzonderlijk kijken. (zie: 6, 12)
Met behulp van deze regels kan men desgewenst zelf deelbaarheidsregels voor andere talstelsels dan het tientallige bepalen. Zo is bijvoorbeeld een getal deelbaar door 7, als de som van de cijfers in het octale talstelsel deelbaar is door 7 (naar analogie met deelbaarheid door 9 en het decimale talstelsel).
https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deelbaar#:~:text=13%20als%20het%20getal%2C%20dat,daarvan%2C%20deelbaar%20is%20door%2013.

 

Het getal zeven

Het getal zeven is voor veel mensen hun geluksgetal. En je komt het getal op allerlei plekken tegen. De regenboog heeft bijvoorbeeld zeven kleuren, de stad Rome is gebouwd op zeven heuvels en als je de twee tegenover elkaar liggende vlakken van een dobbelsteen bij elkaar optelt, komt daar altijd zeven uit. Maar zeven is ook een van de bekendste Bijbelse getallen.

Een bijzonder getal: compleetheid

Het getal zeven is in de Bijbel inderdaad een bijzonder getal.  Veel mensen zullen het direct herkennen als een Bijbels, een heilig getal. Maar wat is dan het bijzondere van zeven?

Zeven staat in de Bijbel symbool voor compleetheid. Het geeft aan dat iets af is: iets kan niet beter worden dan het is, of juist niet erger. Kijk bijvoorbeeld maar eens naar deze verhalen:

  • Het begint al bij de schepping die in zeven dagen gebeurt (Genesis 1:1-2:4). Opvallend is dat het Hebreeuws geen namen voor de dagen kent, behalve voor de laatste dag. Er wordt geteld: de eerste dag, de tweede. Maar de rustdag, de zevende dag, wordt sabbat genoemd.
  • Als iemand Kaïn wil doden, zal hij zeven keer gestraft worden door God (Genesis 4:15). Opvallend is dat in Genesis 4:24 Lamech roept dat als iemand hem wil doden, hij wel 77 keer gestraft wordt. Een teken van onbegrensde wraak dus. Dat staat tegenover de zeventig maal zeven keer die je van Jezus moet vergeven (Matteüs 18:22).
  • In Leviticus 25 wordt gesproken over het sabbatsjaar. Elk zevende jaar moest de grond rust krijgen, want dat jaar was bestemd voor God. Niemand mocht dan zaaien of oogsten. En na zeven keer zeven jaar, was er een extra bijzonder jaar: het jubeljaar. In dat jaar konden slaven bijvoorbeeld terugkeren naar hun familie en hoefden schulden niet meer terugbetaald te worden.
  • In het Bijbelboek Ezechiël worden er profetieën uitgesproken tegen zeven verschillende volken, zoals tegen Tyrus en Sidon (Ezechiël 25-32). Daarmee wordt de hele wereld bedoeld.
  • Nadat Jezus veel mensen voedt met zeven broden en wat visjes blijven er zeven manden vol brood over (Matteüs 15:32-39). Dit verhaal staat vlak na de wonderbare vermenigvuldiging met vijf broden, twee vissen en twaalf manden.

Het boek Openbaring

Ook in het boek Openbaring komt het getal zeven heel veel voor. Dit boek staat vol (getallen)symboliek. Er wordt onder andere gesproken over:

Kortom, het getal zeven laat zien dat iets af is. En als je dit weet over het getal zeven, ga je de Bijbelverhalen nog beter begrijpen. Zo komen ze dichterbij!
https://www.debijbel.nl/berichten/zeven-een-heilig-getal

Als je een Duimpje-Op geeft, betekent dit (volgens mij) dat je het ergens mee eens bent.
Voor jouw veiligheid wil ik wel weten of jij beseft met wat jij gezegd hebt het eens te zijn.
(Ik vind dat dus menslievend en kijkend naar wat de ander eventueel wel of niet begrijpt. Dat doen niet veel mensen. Erger nog, veel mensen hanteren hun eigen taal, meestal onbegrijpelijk voor de ander. Zo liegen zij niet, wel ontwijken zij confrontatie en laten zij de ander weerloos achter. Van mij uit gezien)

823.543

Je hebt gezegd dat ik niet besef hoe intelligent jij bent.
Okay, ik geloof je.
Dan kun je toch wel een aantal eigenschappen van dit getal zien?

 

7x7x7x7x7x7x7
zeven tot de zevende

Zo niet, dat kun je vragen wat ik bedoel en je krijgt onmiddellijk een echt antwoord.
Niet de antwoorden van mensen die alle macht aan zich houden door multi interpretabele antwoorden te geven, door tekst en/of beeld.

We kennen allemaal de BEL antwoorden.
Waarbij het alleen gaat om jou, de ander moet zich voegen naar jou.
Jij bent er voor de zieke……???????
Ziek genoeg om afhankelijk te zijn en geen werkelijke vragen te stellen.
Jij bent er voor de student…….???????
Ik heb overleg gehad en ik ontdekte weeeeeeeeeer een BEL…. bell bell…
Tuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuurlijk…
Durf je niet gewoon te zeggen
Nooit…???
Alles draait om jou, om jouw gezicht…..
Ervaar je dit als groot? Belle belle…..

Groot????

7x7x7x7x7x7x7=823.543
7x7x7x7x7x7x8=941.192
7x7x7x7x7x7x6=705.894

https://bijbel.eo.nl/geloofsvragen/moet-je-altijd-vergeven-wat-is-daar-voor-nodig

Guru Nanak is een bijzonder mens, verder niet.
Ik voel mij verbonden met een liefderijk/vol mens, zonder macht: JVN
Bij jou moet iemand eruit als ie niet reageert of nazegt wat jij vindt dat goed is.
Dat heeft, mijns inziens, niets te maken met JVN
Ik heb ervaren dat je bij een afgescheiden groep hoort, de guru Nanak groep

De mensenzoon heeft geen plaats om….
De mensenzoon is naakt en kan iedere vorm in…
Hij is AL/GOD

Zeventig maal zeven keer vergeven

Mat. 18:21-22 Daarop kwam Petrus bij hem staan en vroeg: “Heer, als mijn broeder of zuster tegen mij zondigt, hoe vaak moet ik dan vergeving schenken? Tot zevenmaal toe?” Jezus antwoordde: “Niet tot zevenmaal toe, zeg ik je, maar tot zeventig maal zeven.”

De liefde van de Heer

Mat. 22:37-39 Hij antwoordde: “Heb de Heer, uw God, lief met heel uw hart en met heel uw ziel en met heel uw verstand. Dat is het grootste en eerste gebod. Het tweede is daaraan gelijk: heb uw naaste lief als uzelf.”

Wat ik je zei met 823.543 (kernachtiger kon het niet) is:
Ik heb je vergeven
Een thummetje up wil niet zeggen dat je de diepte begrijpt
Als je niet echt kunt vertellen wat je begrijpt
en je kunt er niet naar vragen als je niet begrijpt
en je kunt alleen maar de lastige weer verwijderen…
heb je laten zien
hoe jij in je diepte bent
een gezicht
angst om…

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